The
following is a list of animals whose names appear in the Bible. Whenever
required for the identification, the Hebrew name will be indicated, as well as
the specific term used by Zoologists. This list will include even such names as
griffon, lamia, siren or unicorn, which, though generally applied to fabulous
beings, have nevertheless, on account of some misunderstandings or educational
prejudices of the Greek and Latin translators, crept into the versions, and
have been applied to real animals. In the following list D.V. stands for Douay
Version, A.V. and R.V. for Authorized and Revised Version respectively.
A
Addax. — A
kind of antelope (antilope addax) with twisted horns; it very probably
corresponds to the dîshõn of the Hebrews and the pygarg of the divers
translations (Deuteronomy 14:5).
Adder. — A
poisonous snake of the genus Vipera. The word, unused in the D.V., stands in
the A.V. for four different Hebrew names of serpents.
Ant.
(Proverbs 6:6; 30:25). — Over twelve species of ants exist in israel; among
them the ants of the genus Atta are particularly common, especially the atta
barbara, of dark color, and the atta structor, a brown species. These, with the
pheidole megacephala, are, unlike the ants of northern countries, accustomed to
lay up stores of corn for winter use. Hence the allusions of the wise man in
the two above-mentioned passages of Proverbs.
Antelope. —
The word, first applied as a qualification to the gazelle, on account of the
lustre and soft expression of its eye, has become the name of a genus of
ruminant quadrupeds intermediate between the deer and the goat. Four species
are mentioned in the Bible:
(1) the
dîshon (D.V. pygarg; Deuteronomy 14:5), commonly identified with the antilope
addax;
(2) the
çebhî (Deuteronomy 12:15, etc.; D.V. roe) or gazelle, antilope dorcas;
(3) the'ô
(Deuteronomy 14:5; D.V. wild goat; Isaiah 51:20, D.V. wild ox), which seems to
be the bubale (antilope bubalis); and
(4) the
yáhmûr (Deuteronomy 14:5), the name of which is given by the Arabs to the
roebuck of Northern Syria and to the oryx (the white antelope, antilope oryx)
of the desert.
Ape. —
Nowhere in the Bible is the ape supposed to be indigenous to Israel. Apes are
mentioned with gold, silver, ivory, and peacocks among the precious things
imported by Solomon from Tharsis (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chronicles 9:21).
Asp. — This
word, which occurs eleven times in D.V., stands for four Hebrew names:
(1) Péthén
[Deut., xxxii, 33; Job, xx, 14, 16; Psalms., lvii (Hebr., lviii), 5; Isaiah,
xi, 8]. From several allusions both to its deadly venom (Deuteronomy 32:33),
and to its use by serpent-charmers [Ps., lvii (Hebr., lviii), 5, 6], it appears
that the cobra (naja aspis) is most probably signified. Safely to step upon its
body, or even linger by the hole where it coils itself, is manifestly a sign of
God's particular protection [Ps., xc (Hebr., xci), 13; Is., xi, 8]. Sophar, one
of Job's friends, speaks of the wicked as sucking the venom of péthén, in
punishment whereof the food he takes shall be turned within him into the gall
of this poisonous reptile (Job 20:16, 14).
(2)
'Akhshûbh, mentioned only once in the Hebrew Bible, namely Ps., cxl (Vulg.,
cxxxix), 4, but manifestly alluded to in Ps., xiii, 3, and Rom., iii, 13, seems
to have been one of the most highly poisonous kinds of viper, perhaps the
toxicoa, also called echis arenicola or scytale of the Pyramids, very common in
Syria and North Africa.
(3) Sháhál
is also found only once to signify a snake, Ps., xci (Vulg., xc), 13; but what
particular kind of snake we are unable to determine. The word Sháhál might
possibly, owing to some copyist's mistake, have crept into the place of another
name now impossible to restore.
(4) çphônî
(Isaiah 59:5), "the hisser", generally rendered by basilisk in ID.V.
and in ancient translations, the latter sometimes calling it regulus. This
snake was deemed so deadly that, according to the common saying, its hissing
alone, even its look, was fatal. It was probably a small viper, perhaps a
cerastes, possibly the daboia zanthina, according to Cheyne.
Ass. — The
ass has always enjoyed a marked favour above all other beasts of
burden[disambiguation needed] in the Bible. This is evidenced by two very
simple remarks. While, on the one hand, mention of this animal occurs over a
hundred and thirty times in Bible. On the other hand, the Hebrew vocabulary
possesses, to designate the ass, according to its colour, sex, age, etc., a
supply of words in striking contrast with the ordinary penury of the sacred
language. Of these various names the most common is hamôr, "reddish",
the hair of the Eastern ass being generally of that colour. White asses, more
rare, were also more appreciated and reserved for the use of the nobles (Judges
5:10). The custom was introduced very early, as it seems, and still prevails,
to paint the most shapely and valuable donkeys in stripes of different colours.
In the East the ass is much larger and finer than in other countries, and in
several places the pedigrees of the best breeds are carefully preserved. Asses
have always been an important item in the resources of the Eastern peoples, and
we are repeatedly told in the Bible about the herds of these animals owned by
the patriarchs (Genesis 12:16; 30:43; 36:24, etc.), and wealthy Israelites (1
Samuel 9:3; 1 Chronicles 27:30, etc.). Hence the several regulations brought
forth by Israel's lawgiver on this subject: the neighbour's ass should not be
coveted (Exodus 20:17); moreover, should the neighbour's stray ass be found, it
should be taken care of, and its owner assisted in tending this part of his
herd (Deuteronomy 22:3, 4).
The ass
serves in the East for many purposes. Its even gait and surefootedness, so well
suited to the rough paths of the Holy Land, made it at all times the most
popular of all the animals for riding in those hilly regions (Genesis 22:3;
Luke 19:30). Neither was it ridden only by the common people, but also by
persons of the highest rank (Judges 5:10; 10:4; 2 Samuel 17:23; 19:26, etc.).
No wonder therefore that Jesus, about to come triumphantly to Jerusalem,
commanded His disciples to bring Him an ass and her colt; no lesson of
humility, as is sometimes asserted, but the affirmation of the peaceful
character of His kingdom should be sought there. Although the Scripture speaks
of "saddling" the ass, usually no saddle was used by the rider. A
cloth was spread upon the back of the ass and fastened by a strap was all the
equipment. Upon this cloth the rider sat with a servant usually walking
alongside. Should a family journey, the women and children would ride the
asses, attended by the father (Exodus 4:20). This mode of travelling has been
popularized by Christian painters, who copied the eastern customs in their
representations of the Holy Family's flight to Egypt.Scores of passages in the
Bible allude to asses carrying burdens. The Gospels, at least in the Greek
text, speak of millstones run by asses (Matthew 18:6, Mark 9:41; Luke 17:2);
Josephus and the Egyptian monuments teach us that this animal was used for
threshing wheat. Finally, we repeatedly read in the Old Testament of asses
hitched to a plough (Deuteronomy 22:10; Isaiah 30:24, etc.), and in reference
to this custom, the Law forbade ploughing with an ox and an ass together
(Deuteronomy 22:10). From Is., xxi, 7, confirmed by the statements of Greek
writers, we learn that part of the cavalry force in the Persian army rode
donkeys. We should perhaps understand from IV K., vii, 7, that the Syrian
armies followed the same practice; but no such custom seems to have ever
prevailed among the Hebrews. With them the ass was essentially for peaceful
use, the emblem of peace, as the horse was the symbol of war. The flesh of the
donkey was unclean and forbidden by the Law. In some particular circumstances,
however, no law could prevail over necessity, and we read that during
Joram's[disambiguation needed] reign, when Benadad besieged Samaria, the famine
was so extreme in this city, that the head of an ass was sold for 120 pieces of
silver (IV K., vi, 25).
ASS'S COLT.
— This is more specially the symbol of peace and meek obedience (John 12:15).
ASS,
WILD,[disambiguation needed] corresponds in the Old Testament to two words,
péré' and 'arôdh. Whether these two names refer to different species, or are,
the one, the genuine Hebrew name, the other, the Aramaic equivalent for the
same animal, is uncertain. Both signify one of the wildest and most untamable
animals. The wild ass is larger and more shapely than the domestic one, and
outruns the fleetest horse. Its untamableness joined to its nimbleness made it
a fit symbol for the wild and plunder-loving Ismael (Genesis 16:12). The wild
ass, extinct in western Asia, still exists in central Asia and the deserts of
Africa.
Attacus
(Leviticus 11:22). — Instead of this Latin word, the A.V. reads bald-locust.
According to the tradition enshrined in the Talmud, the common truxalis, a
locust with a very long smooth head is probably signified.
Aurochs, or
wild ox (urus, bos primigenius), is undoubtedly the rimu of the Assyrian
inscriptions, and consequently corresponds to the re'em or rêm of the Hebrews.
The latter word is translated sometimes in our D.V. by rhinoceros (Numbers
23:22; 24:8; Deuteronomy 33:17; Job 39:9, 10), sometimes by unicorn (Psalm
22:21; 29:6; 92:10; Isaiah 34:7). That the re'em, far from being unicorn, was a
two-horned animal, is suggested by Ps., xxii, 21, and forcibly evidenced by
Deut., xxxiii, 17, where its horns represent the two tribes of Ephraim and
Manasses. That, moreover, it was akin to the domestic ox is shown from such
parallelisms as we find in Ps., xxiv, 6, where we read, according to the
critical editions of the Hebrew text: "The voice of Yahweh makes Lebanon
skip like a bullock, and Sirion[disambiguation needed] like a young
re'em"; or Is., xxxiv, 7: "And the re'em shall go down with them, and
the bulls with the mighty"; and still more convincingly by such implicit
descriptions as that of Job, xxxix, 9, 10: "Shall the rêm be willing to
serve thee, or will he stay at thy crib? Canst thou bind the rêm with thy thong
to plough, or will he break the clods of the valleys after thee?" These
references will be very clear, the last especially, once we admit the re'em is
an almost untamable wild ox, which one would try in vain to submit to the same
work as its domestic kin. Hence there is very little doubt that in all the
above-mentioned places the word aurochs should be substituted for rhinoceros
and unicorn. The aurochs is for the sacred poets a familiar emblem of untamed
strength and ferocity. It no longer exists in western Asia.
B
Baboon, a
kind of dog-faced, long-haired monkey, dwelling among ruins (gen.
Cynocephalus); it was an object of worship for the Egyptians. Some deem it to
be the "hairy one" spoken of in Is., xiii, 21 and xxxiv, 14, but it
is very doubtful whether it ever existed west of the Euphrates.
Badger
Tahashim. — No mention of the badger (meles taxus) is found in the D.V.,
whereas the A.V. regularly gives it as the English equivalent for táhásh. Skins
of táháshim are repeatedly spoken of as used for the outer cover of the
tabernacle and the several pieces of its furniture. The old translations, and
the D.V. after them, understood the word táhásh to mean a color (violet; Exodus
25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; Numbers 4:10, 25; Ezekiel 16:10); but this is a
"misrepresentation" according to Talmudic writers; so also is the
rendering of the A.V.; for though the badger is common in Israel, yet the
Hebrew name "most probably" (according to 19th and early 20th century
scholars) indicates the dugong (designated halicore hemprichii 1832, and
halicore tabernaculi 1843), a very large species of the seal family living in
the Red Sea, the skin of which is used to the present day by Bedouin Arabs for
such purposes as those alluded to in the Bible. Nevertheless, this is in
contradiction to Leviticus 11:10 (KJV) "And all that have not fins and
scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of
any living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto
you." And Leviticus 11:27 says clearly (including the badger), "And
whatsoever goeth upon his paws, among all manner of beasts that go on all four,
those are unclean unto you: whoso toucheth their carcase shall be unclean until
the even." Leviticus explicitly commands the Jews, "Ye shall not make
yourselves abominable..." (11:41-47) The opinion that tahash denotes the
dugong is declining in recent decades in favor of "blue-processed
skins" (Navigating the Bible II) and "(blue-)beaded skins"
(Anchor Bible.) see Tahash.
Basilisk
occurs in the D.V. as an equivalent for several Hebrew names of snakes:
(1) Péthén
(Ps. xc, 13), the cobra; had the Latin and English translators been more
consistent they would have rendered this Hebrew word here, as in the other
places, by asp;
(2) Céphá'
and Cíphe 'ônî (Prov., xxiii, 32; Is., xi. 8; xiv, 29; Jer., viii, '17;
(3) 'éphe'éh
(Isaiah 59:5), a kind of viper impossible to determine, or perhaps the echis
arenicola;
(4) flying
sãrãph (Isaiah 14:29; 30:6), a winged serpent (?), possibly also a reptile like
the draco fimbriatus, which, having long ribs covered with a fringe-like skin,
is able to glide through the air for short distances.
Bat. — The
bat, fourteen species of which still exist in Israel is reckoned among unclean
"winged things" (Leviticus 11:19; Deuteronomy 14:18). Its abode is
generally in dark and desolate places such as ruins and caverns.
Bear. — The
bear spoken of in the Bible is the ursus syriacus, scarcely different from the
brown bear of Europe. Since the destruction of the forests, it is now rarely
seen south of Lebanon and Hermon, where it is common. Not unfrequently met in
the Holy Land during the Old Testament times, it was much dreaded on account of
its ferocious and destructive instincts; to dare it was accordingly a mark of
uncommon courage (1 Samuel 17:34-36). Its terror-striking roars and its
fierceness, especially when robbed of its cubs, are repeatedly alluded to.
Beast, Wild.
— The expression occurs twice in the D.V., but much oftener in the A.V., and R.
V., where it is in several places a substitute for the awkward "beast of
the field", the Hebrew name of wild animals at large. The first time we
read of "wild beasts" in the D.V., it fairly stands for the Hebrew
word zîz [Ps. lxxix (Hebr., lxxx), 14], albeit the "singular wild beast"
is a clumsy translation. The same Hebrew word in Ps. xlix, 11, at least for
consistency's sake, should have been rendered in the same manner; "the
beauty of the field" must consequently be corrected into "wild
beast". In Is., xiii, 21, "wild beasts" is an equivalent for the
Hebr. Ciyyîm, i. e. denizens of the desert. This word in different places has
been translated in divers manners: demons (Isaiah 34:14), dragons (Psalm 73:14;
Jeremiah 1:39); it possibly refers to the hyena.
Bee. —
Israel, according to Scripture, is a land flowing with honey (Exodus 3:8). Its
dry climate, its rich abundance, and variety of aromatic flowers, and its
limestone rocks render it particularly adapted for bees. No wonder then that
honey bees, both wild and hived, abound there. All the different species known
by the names of bombus, nomia, andrena, osmia, megachile, anthophora, are
widely spread throughout the country. The hived honey bee of Israel, apis
fasciata, belongs to a variety slightly different from ours, characterized by
yellow stripes on the abdomen. Wild bees are said to live not only in rocks
[Ps. lxxx (Hebr., lxxxi), 17], but in hollow trees (1 Samuel 14:25), even in
dried carcasses (Judges 14:8). Syrian and Egyptian hives are made of a mash of
clay and straw for coolness. In Old Testament times, honey was an article of
export (Genesis 43:11; Ezekiel 27:17). Bees are spoken of in Bible as a term of
comparison for a numerous army relentlessly harassing their enemies. Debôrah,
the Hebrew name for bee, was a favourite name for women.
Beetle,
given by A.V. (Leviticus 11:22) as an equivalent for Hebrew, árbéh, does not
meet the requirements of the context: "Hath the legs behind longer
wherewith it hoppeth upon the earth", any more than the bruchus of D.V.,
some species of locust, the locusta migratoria being very likely intended.
Behemoth, is
generally translated by "great beasts"; in its wider signification it
includes all mammals living on earth, but in the stricter sense is applied to
domesticated quadrupeds at large. However in Job, xl, 10, where it is left
untranslated and considered as a proper name, it indicates a particular animal.
The description of this animal has long puzzled the commentators. Many of them
now admit that it represents the hippopotamus, some Young Earth Creationists
think it's a dinosaur like the Apatosaurus or the Brachiosaurus, so well known
to the ancient Egyptians; it might possibly correspond as well to the
rhinoceros.
Bird. — No
other classification of birds than into clean and unclean is given. The Jews,
before the Babylonian captivity, had no domestic fowls except pigeons .
Although many birds are mentioned, there occur few allusions to their habits.
Their instinct of migration, the snaring or netting them, and the caging of
song birds are referred to.
Bird, Dyed.
— So does the English version, Jer., xii, 9, wrongly interpret the Hebrew
'áyit. which means beast of prey, sometimes also bird of prey.
Bird,
Singing. — This singing bird of Soph., ii, 14, according to the D.V., owes its
origin to a mistranslation of the original, which most probably should be read:
"And their voice shall sing at the window"; unless by a mistake of
some scribe, the word qôl, voice, has been substituted for the name of some
particular bird.
Birds,
Speckled, Hebrew çãbhûá' (Jeremiah 12:9). A much discussed translation. The
interpretation of the English versions, however meaningless it may seem to
some, is supported by the Targum, the Syriac, and St. Jerome. In spite of these
authorities many modern scholars prefer to use the word hyena, given by the
Septuagint and confirmed by Sirach, xiii, 22 as well as by the Arabic (dábúh)
and rabbinical Hebrew (çebhôá'), names of the hyena.
Bison,
According to several authors, the re'em of the Bible. It belongs to the same
genus as the aurochs, but being indigenous to America (whence its name, bos
americanus), and specifically different from the aurochs, cannot possibly have
been known by the Hebrews.
Bittern
(botháurus vulgaris), a shy, solitary, wading bird related to the heron and
inhabiting the recesses of swamps, where its startling, booming cry at night
gives a frightening impression of desolation. In the D.V., bittern stands for
Hebr. qã'ãth (Leviticus 11:18; Isaiah 34:11; Zephaniah 2:14), although by some
inconsistency the same Hebrew word is rendered Deut., xiv, 17, by cormorant,
and Ps. ci (Hebr., cii), 7, by pelican. The pelican meets all the requirements
of all the passages where qã'ãth is mentioned, and would perhaps be a better
translation than bittern.
Blast
certainly, designates, Deut., xxviii, 42, a voracious insect; the Hebrew
çelãçál, "chirping", suggests that the cricket was possibly meant and
might be substituted for blast. In Ps. lxxvii (Hebr., lxxviii), 46, blast
stands for hãsîl, "the destroyer", perhaps the locust in its
caterpillar state, in which it is most destructive.
Boar, Wild.
— The only allusion to this animal is found Ps. lxxix (Hebr., lxxx), 14;
however, the wild boar was undoubtedly always, as it is now, common in Israel,
having its lair in the woods, and most destructive to vineyards.
Bruchus. —
Though it occurs once (Leviticus 11:22) as an equivalent for Hebrew, 'ârbéh
(probably the locusta migratoria), the word bruchus is the regular
interpretation for yéléq, "licker". The Biblical bruchus may be
fairly identified with the beetle, or some insect akin to it. Anyway the yéléq
of Jer., li, 14, 27, should have been rendered in the same manner as everywhere
else.
Bubale,
antilope bubalis, or alcephalus bubalis, which should not be confounded with
the bubale, bos bubalus, is probably signified by the Hebrew, the'ô,
interpreted by the Douay translators, wild goat, in Deut., xiv, 5, and wild ox,
Is., li, 20. It still exists in Israel, but was formerly much more common than
now.
Buffalo (bos
bubalus). — So does the D.V. translate the Hebrew, yáhmûr, III K., iv, 23
(Hebrews 1 Samuel 5:3). Being a denizen of marshy and swampy lands, the buffalo
must have been scarcely known by the Hebrews. Moreover, its coarse, unpleasant
smelling flesh seems to exclude the identification with the animal referred to
in the above mentioned passage, where we should probably read roebuck.
Buffle. —
Another word for buffalo, D.V., Deut., xiv, 5. According to good authorities,
the oryx, or white antelope, might be here intended, the Hebrew word yáhmûr
possibly meaning, as its Arabic equivalent does, both the roebuck and the oryx.
Bull. — A
symbol of fierce and relentless adversaries [Ps. xxi (Hebr., xxii), 13].
Bullock. —
The bullock, as yet unaccustomed to the yoke, is an image of Israel's
insubordinate mind before he was subdued by the captivity (Jeremiah 31:18).
Buzzard
(Hebr., rã'ah). — Probably the ringtail of D.V. and the glede of A.V.
(Deuteronomy 14:13); possibly, through a scribe's error, might be identified
with the kite, dã'ah, of Lev., xi, 14. The buzzard, three species of which
exist in Israel, has always been common there.
C
Calf, One of
the most popular representations of the deity among the Canaanites. The calf
is, in Biblical poetry, a figure for vexing and pitiless foes [Ps., xxi (Hebr.,
xxii), 13]. The fatted calf was a necessary feature, so to say, of a feast
dinner.
Camel, a
prominent domestic animal of the East without the existence of which life in
the Arabian deserts would be impossible. It was perhaps the first beast of
burden[disambiguation needed] applied to the service of man. It is mentioned as
such in the Biblical records as early as the time of Abraham. It constituted a
great element in the riches of the early patriarchs. There are two species of
camel: the one-humped camel (camelus dromedarius), and the two-humped camel
(camelus bactrianus). The camel is used for riding as well as for carrying
loads; its furniture is a large frame placed on the humps, to which cradles or
packs are attached. In this manner was all the merchandise of Assyria and Egypt
transported. But the camel is appreciated for other reasons: it may be hitched
to a wagon or to a plough, and in fact is not unfrequently yoked together with
the ass or the ox; the female supplies abundantly her master with a good milk;
camel's hair is woven into a rough cloth wherewith tents and cloaks are made;
finally its flesh, albeit coarse and dry, may be eaten. With the Jews, however,
the camel was reckoned among the unclean animals.
Camelopardalis,
occurs only once in the D.V. (Deuteronomy 14:5), as a translation of zémér. The
word, a mere transcription of the Latin and the Greek, is a combination of the
names of the camel and the leopard, and indicates the giraffe. But this
translation, as well as that of the A.V. (chamois), is doubtless erroneous;
neither the giraffe nor the chamois ever lived in Israel. The wild sheep or
mouflon, which still lingers in Cyprus and Arabia Petrala, is very likely
intended.
Cankerworm,[disambiguation
needed] the locust in its larva state, in which it is most voracious. So does
A.V. render the Hebrew, gãzám; the word palmerworm, given by the D.V. seems
better.
Cat. —
Mention of this animal occurs only once in the Bible, namely Bar., vi, 21. The
original text of Baruch being lost, we possess no indication as to what the
Hebrew name of the cat may have been. Possibly there was not any; for although
the cat was very familiar to the Egyptians, it seems to have been altogether
unknown to the Jews, as well as to the Assyrians and Babylonians, even to the
Greeks and Romans before the conquest of Egypt. These and other reasons have
led some commentators to believe that the word cat, in the above cited place of
Baruch, might not unlikely stand for another name now impossible to restore.
Cattle. —
Very early in the history of mankind, animals were tamed and domesticated, to
be used in agriculture, for milk, for their flesh, and especially for
sacrifices. Many words in Hebrew expressed the different ages and sexes of
cattle, West of the Jordan River the cattle were generally stall-fed; in the
plains and hills south and east they roamed in a half-wild state; such were the
most famous "bulls of Basan".
Cerastes
(Hebr., shephîphõn) should be substituted in D.V. for the colourless
"serpent", Gen., xlix, 17. The identification of the shephîphõn with
the deadly horned cerastes (cerastes hasselquistii or vipera cerastes) is
evidenced by the Arabic name of the latter (shúffon), and its customs in
perfect agreement with the indications of the Bible. The cerastes, one of the
most venomous of snakes, is in the habit of coiling itself in little
depressions such as camels' footmarks, and suddenly darting on any passing
animal.
Chameleon
(Hebr., kôâh). — Mentioned Lev., xi, 30, with the mole (Hebr., tínshéméth). In
spite of the authority of the ancient translations, it is now generally
admitted that the tínshéméth is the chameleon, very common in Israel; whereas
the kôâh is a kind of large lizard, perhaps the land monitor (psammosaurus
scincus).
Chamois
(antilope rupicapra) is now totally unknown in western Asia, where it very
probably never existed. The opinion of those who see it in the Hebrew zémér
(Deuteronomy 14:5) should consequently be entirely discarded (see
Camelopardalis).
Charadrion
(Hebrew anãphah, Leviticus 11:19; Deuteronomy 14:18) would be the plover; but
it rather stands here for the heron, all the species of which (this is the
sense of the expression "according to its kind"), numerous in Israel,
should be deemed unclean.
Cherogrillus
(Leviticus 11:5; Deuteronomy 14:7), a mere transliteration of the Greek name of
the porcupine, corresponds to the Hebrew shãphãn, translated, Ps. ciii (Hebr.,
civ), 18, by irchin, and Prov., xxx, 26, by rabbit. As St. Jerome noticed it,
the shãphãn is not the porcupine, but a very peculiar animal of about the same
size, dwelling among the rocks, and in holes, and called in Israel
"bear-rat", on account of some resemblance with these two quadrupeds.
We call it coney, or daman (hyrax syriacus). Its habit of lingering among the
rocks is alluded to, Ps. ciii, 18; its wisdom and defencelessness, Prov., xxx,
24-26. "It cannot burrow, for it has no claws, only nails half developed ;
but it lies in holes in the rocks, and feeds only at dawn and dusk, always
having sentries posted, at the slightest squeak from which the whole party
instantly disappears. The coney is not a ruminant (cf. Leviticus 11:5), but it
sits working its jaws as if re-chewing. It is found sparingly in most of the
rocky districts, and is common about Sinai" (Tristram).
Cobra (naja
aspis), most likely the deadly snake called péthén by the Hebrews, found in
Israel and Egypt and used by serpent-charmers.
Cochineal
(coccus ilicis). — A hemiptera homoptera insect very common on the Syrian
holm-oak, from the female of which the crimson dye kermes is prepared. The
complete name in Hebrew is equivalent to "scarlet insect", the
"insect" being not unfrequently omitted in the translations.
Cock, Hen. —
Domestic poultry are not mentioned till after the Babylonian captivity. In
Jesus' time domestic poultry, introduced from India through Persia, had become
common, and their well-known habits gave rise to familiar expressions, and
afforded good and easy illustrations (Mark 13:35; 14:30, etc.). Jesus Christ
compared His care for Jerusalem to that of a hen for her brood. The three times
the word 'cock' appears in the D.V. it is owing to a misinterpretation of the
primitive text.
(1) Job,
xxxviii, 36, the word sékhwi means soul, heart: "Who hath put wisdom in
the heart of man? and who gave his soul understanding?"
(2) Prov.,
xxx, 31, zãrzîr should be translated as "hero".
(3) Is.,
xxii, 17, where the word gébhér, great, strong man, has been rendered according
to some rabbinical conceptions.
Cockatrice.
— A fabulous serpent supposed to be produced from a cock's egg brooded by a
serpent; it was alleged that its hissing would drive away all other serpents,
and that its breath, even its look, was fatal. The word is used in A.V. as the
regular equivalent for Hebrew, çíphe'ônî.
Colt. — See
ASS'S COLT (sup.).
Coney.[disambiguation
needed] — See Cherogrillus (sup.).
Coral,
Hebrew, rãmôth, should probably be substituted, Job, xxviii, 18, for
"eminent things", and Ezech., xxvii, 16, for "silk" in the
D.V. The coral dealt with at Tyre was that of the Red Sea or even of the Indian
Ocean; coral seems to have been scarcely known among the Jews.
Cormorant
(Leviticus 11:17; Deuteronomy 14:17), very frequently met with on the coasts,
rivers, and lakes of Israel, probably corresponds to the shãlãk of the Hebrew,
although this name, which means "the plunger", might be applied to
some other plunging bird.
Cow. — See
CATTLE (sup.).
Crane (grus
cinerea). — The word does not occur in D.V., but seems the best translation of
Hebrew, 'ãghûr, read in two passages: Is., xxxviii, 14, and Jer., viii, 7,
where its loud voice and migratory instincts are alluded to. There is little
doubt that the two above indicated places of D.V., where we read
"swallow", should be corrected.
Cricket, a
good translation for Hebr., çelãçál, "chirping", which besides the
feature suggested by the etymology, is described Deut., xxviii, 42, as a
voracious insect. See BLAST (sup.).
Crocodile. —
We do not read this word in any other place than Lev., xi, 29 (D.V.), where it
corresponds to the Hebrew, çãb; the animal is, nevertheless, oftener spoken of
in the Holy Books under cover of several metaphors: ráhâb, "the
proud" (Isaiah 51:9); tánnîn, "the stretcher" (Ezekiel 29:3);
líweyãthãn (leviathan) [Ps. lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv), 14; Job, xl, 20, xli, 25].
See DRAGON (inf.). The crocodile (crocodilus vulgaris) is still found in great
numbers, not only in the upper Nile, but also in Israel. A remarkable
description of the crocodile has been drawn by the author of the Book of Job.
He depicts the difficulty of capturing, snaring, or taming him, his vast size,
his impenetrable scales, his flashing eyes, his snorting, and his immense
strength. Dreadful as he is, the crocodile was very early regarded and
worshipped as a deity by the Egyptians. He is, in the Bible, the emblem of the
people of Egypt and their Pharaoh, sometimes even of all Israel's foes.
Cuckoo,
according to some, would be the bird called in Hebrew shâhâph (Leviticus 11:16;
Deuteronomy 14:15), and there reckoned among the unclean birds. Two species,
the cuculus canorus, and the oxylophus glandarius live in the Holy Land;
however there is little probability that the cuckoo is intended in the
mentioned passages, where we should perhaps see the shear-water and the various
species of sea-gulls.
D
Daboia
Zanthina, See Basilisk (sup.).
Daman. — See
Cherogrillus (sup.).
Deer. —
(Hebr., 'áyyãl). Its name is frequently read in the Scriptures, and its habits
have afforded many allusions or comparisons, which fact supposes that the deer
was not rare in Israel. Its handsome form, its swiftness, its shyness, the love
of the roe for her fawns, are alluded to; it seems from Prov., v, 19 and some
other indirect indications that the words 'áyyãl and 'áyyãlah (deer and hind)
were terms of endearment most familiar between lovers.
Demons (Isaiah
34:14). — So does D.V., translate çíyyîm; it is certainly a mistake. The word
at issue is generally believed to refer to the hyena (hyœna striata), still
found everywhere in caves and tombs, So also is the word "devils" of
Bar., iv, 35, We possess no longer the Hebrew text of the latter; but it
possibly contained the same word; anyway, "hyena" is unquestionably a
far better translation than the mere meaningless "devils".
Dispas. —
The D.V., following the Vulgate (Deuteronomy 8:15) thereby means a serpent
whose bite causes a mortal thirst; but this interpretation seems to come from a
misunderstanding suggested by the Septuagint; the original writer most likely
intended there to mean "drought", as the A.V. rightly puts it, and
not any kind of serpent.
Dog. — The
dog in the East does not enjoy the companionship and friendship of man as in
the western countries. Its instinct has been cultivated only insofar as the
protecting of the flocks and camps against wild animals is concerned. In the
towns and villages it roams in the streets and places, of which it is the
ordinary scavenger; packs of dogs in a half-wild state are met with in the
cities and are not unfrequently dangerous for men. For this reason the dog has
always been, and is still looked upon with loathing and aversion, as filthy and
unclean. With a very few exceptions, whenever the dog is spoken of in the Bible
(where it is mentioned over 40 times), it is with contempt, to remark either
its voracious instincts, or its fierceness, or its loathsomeness; it was
regarded as the emblem of lust, and of uncleanness in general. As some Muslims,
to the present day, term Christians "dogs", so did the Jews of old
apply that infamous name to Gentiles.
Dove (Hebr.,
yônah). — Though distinguishing it from tôr, the turtle-dove, the Jews were
perfectly aware of their natural affinity and speak of them together. The dove
is mentioned in the Bible oftener than any other bird (over 50 times); this
comes both from the great number of doves flocking in Israel, and of the favour
they enjoy among the people. The dove is first spoken of in the record of the
flood (Genesis 8:8-12); later on we see that Abraham offered up some in
sacrifice, which would indicate that the dove was very early domesticated. In
fact several allusions are made to dove-cotes, with their "windows"
or latticed openings. But in olden times as well as now, besides the legions of
pigeons that swarm around the villages, there were many more rock-doves,
"doves of the valleys", as they are occasionally termed (Ezekiel
7:16; Song of Songs 2:14; Jeremiah 48:28), that filled the echoes of the
mountain gorges with the rustling of their wings. The metallic lustre of their
plumage, the swiftness of their flight, their habit of sweeping around in
flocks, their plaintive coo, are often alluded to by the different sacred
writers. The dark eye of the dove, encircled by a line of bright red skin, is
also mentioned; its gentleness and innocence made it the type of trust and
love, and, most naturally, its name was one of the most familiar terms of
endearment. Jesus spoke of the dove as a symbol of simplicity; the sum of its
perfections made it a fitting emblem for the Holy Spirit.
Dragon, a
word frequently found in the translations of the Bible as substitute, so it
seems, for other names of animals that the translators were unable to identify.
It stands indeed for several Hebrew names:
(1) thán
(Job 30:29; Isaiah 34:13; 35:7; 43:20; Jeremiah 9:11; 10:22; 14:6; 49:33;
51:37; Micah 1:8; Malachi 1:3), unquestionably meaning a denizen of desolate
places, and generally identified with the jackal;
(2) tánnîm,
in a few passages with the sense of serpent [Deut., xxxii, 33; Ps., xc (Hebr.,
xci), 13; Dan., xiv, 22-27), in others most likely signifying the crocodile
[Ps., lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv), 13; Is., li, 9; Ezech., xxix, 3], or even a
sea-monster (Ezekiel 32:2), such as a whale, porpoise, or dugong, as rightly
translated Lam., iv, 3, and as probably intended Ps., cxlviii, 7;
(3)
líweyãthãn (leviathan), meaning both the crocodile [Ps., lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv),
14] and sea-monster [Ps. ciii (Hebr., civ), 26];
(4) çiyyim
(Psalm 73:14; Jeremiah 1:39), which possibly means the hyena.
Other
places, such as Esth., x, 7; xi, 6; Ecclus., xxv, 23, can be neither traced
back to a Hebrew original, nor identified with sufficient probability. The
author of the Apocalypse repeatedly makes mention of the dragon, by which he
means "the old serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, who seduceth
the whole world" (Revelation 12:9, etc.). Of the fabulous dragon fancied
by the ancients, represented as a monstrous winged serpent, with a crested head
and enormous claws, and regarded as very powerful and ferocious, no mention
whatever is to be found in the Bible. The word dragon, consequently, should
really be removed from Bibles, except perhaps Is., xiv, 29 and xxx, 6, where
the draco fimbriatus is possibly spoken of. See BASILISK, 4 (sup.).
Dromedary. —
The word so rendered, Is., lx, 6, signifies rather a swift and finely bred
camel.
Dugong. —
See BADGER (sup.).
E
Eagle. - So
is generally rendered the Hebrew, néshér, but there is a doubt as to whether
the eagle or some kind of vulture is intended. It seems even probable that the
Hebrews did not distinguish very carefully these different large birds of prey,
and that all are spoken of as though they were of one kind. Anyway, four
species of eagles are known to live in Israel: aquila chrysœtos, aquila nœvia,
aquila heliaca, and circœtos gallicus. Many allusions are made to the eagle in
the Bible: its inhabiting the dizziest cliffs for nesting, its keen sight, its
habit of congregating to feed on the slain, its swiftness, its longevity, its
remarkable care in training its young, are often referred to (see in particular
Job 39:27-30). When the relations of Israel with their neighbours became more
frequent, the eagle became, under the pen of the Jewish prophets and poets, an
emblem first of the Assyrian, then of the Babylonian, and finally of the
Persian kings.
Elephant. —
We learn from Assyrian inscriptions that before the Hebrews settled in Syria,
there existed elephants in that country, and Tiglath-Pileser I tells us about
his exploits in elephant hunting. We do not read, however, of elephants in the
Bible until the Machabean times. True, III Kings speaks of ivory, or "elephants'
teeth", as the Hebrew text puts it, yet not as indigenous, but as imported
from Ophir. In the post-exilian times, especially in the books of the
Machabees, elephants are frequently mentioned; they were an important element
in the armies of the Seleucides. These animals were imported either from India
or from Africa.
Ericus, a
Latin name of the hedgehog, preserved in the D.V. as a translation of the
Hebrew word qíppôdh (Isaiah 14:23; 34:11; Zephaniah 2:14, the word
urchin[disambiguation needed] has been used) and qîppôz (Isaiah 34:15). The
above identification of the qíppôdh is based both on the Greek rendering and
the analogy between this Hebrew word and the Talmudic (qúppádh), Syriac
(qufdô'), Arabic (qúnfúd) and Ethiopian (qinfz) names of the hedgehog. Several
scholars, however, discard this identification, because the hedgehog, contrary
to the qíppôdh, lives neither in marshes nor ruins, and has no voice. The
bittern meets all the requirements of the texts where the qíppôdh is mentioned.
It should be noticed nevertheless that hedgehogs are far from rare in Israel.
As to the qîppôz of Is., xxxiv, 15, read qíppôdh by some Hebrew Manuscripts,
and interpreted accordingly by the Septuagint, Vulgate and the versions derived
therefrom, its identity is a much discussed question. Some, arguing from the
authorities just referred to, confound it with the qíppôdh, whereas others deem
it to be the arrow-snake; but besides that no such animal as arrow-snake is
known to naturalists, the context seems to call for a bird.
Ewe. — In
Hebrew, six names at least, with their feminines, express the different stages
of development of the sheep. Its domestication goes back to the night of time,
so that the early traditions enshrined in the Bible speak of the first men as
shepherds. Whatever may be thought of this point, it is out of question that
from the dawn of historical times down to our own, flocks have constituted the
staple of the riches of the land. The ewe of Israel is generally the ovis
laticaudata, the habits of which, resembling those of all other species of
sheep, are too well known to be here dwelt upon. Let it suffice to notice that
scores of allusions are made in the Holy Books to these habits as well as to
the different details of the pastoral life.
F
Falcon. — See
HAWK (inf.).
Fallow-deer
(Cervus dama or Dama vulgaris) believed by some to be signified by Hebrew
yáhmûr.[citation needed] The fallow-deer is scarce in the Holy Land and found
only north of Mount Thabor. If it is mentioned at all in the Bible, it is probably
ranked among the deer.
Fawn
(Proverbs 5:19), for Hebrew, yá'alah, feminine of yã'el which should be
regularly, as it is in several passages, rendered by wild goat (ibex syriacus).
See GOAT, WILD (inf.).
Faun. — An
equivalent in D.V. (Jeremiah 1:39), after St. Jerome, for Hebrew, 'íyyîm. St.
Jerome explains that they were wild beings, denizens of deserts and woods, with
a hooked nose, a horned forehead, and goat feet. He translated the Hebrew by
fig-faun, adding to the original the adjective ficarii, possibly following in
this the pagan idea which, supposing that figs incline to lust, regarded
fig-groves a well fitted abode for fauns. The same Hebrew word is rendered Is.,
xiii, 22 by owls, and Is., xxxiv, 14, by monsters, which shows a great perplexity
on the part of the translators. The true meaning, being "howlers",
seems to point out the jackal, called the "howler" by the Arabs.
Fish. — Fish
are mentioned extensively in the Bible, although no particular species is
named. Fishermen are mentioned in both Old and New Testaments, including
several of Jesus' followers. Jonah's fish: According to the Book of Jonah, a
"great fish" swallowed the prophet Jonah (Jonah 1:17 A.V.), and he
was in its belly for three days, before being vomited up. Matthew 12:40 refers
to it as a whale.
Flea, spoken
of I K., xxiv, 15; xxvi, 20, as the most insignificant cause of trouble that
may befall a man.
Flock. — The
flocks of Israel include generally both sheep and goats: "The sheep eat
only the fine herbage, whereas the goats browse on what the sheep refuse. They
pasture and travel together in parallel columns, but seldom intermingle more
closely, and at night they always classify themselves. The goats are for the
most part black, the sheep white, dappled or piebald, forming a very marked
contrast..." (Tristram). The shepherd usually leads the flock, calling the
sheep by their names from time to time; in his footsteps follows an old
he-goat, whose stately bearing affords to the natives matter for several
comparisons; the Arabs, indeed to this day, call a man of stately mien a
"he-goat". The shepherd at sunset waters his flock, folds them
ordinarily in some of the many caves found on every hillside, and with trained
dogs guards them at night.
Fly. — Two
Hebrew words are thus translated:
(1) 'ãrõbh
is the name of the Egyptian fly of the fourth plague; this name, a collective
one, though translated by dog-fly in the Septuagint, seems to signify all kinds
of flies. Flies are at all times an almost insufferable nuisance; the common
house-fly, with the gnat, vexes men, while gad-flies of every description
tsetse, œstru, hippoboscida, tabanus marocanus, etc., infest animals.
(2) Zebhûbh
is likewise the collective name of the Israeli fly, but more specifically of
the gad-fly.
Though a
trifle less annoying than in Egypt, flies were, however, deemed a plague severe
enough in Israel to induce the natives to have recourse to the power of a
special god, Bá'ál-zebhûbh, the master of the flies, that they and their cattle
be protected against that scourge.
Fowl. — This
word which, in its most general sense, applies to anything that flies in the
air (Genesis 1:20, 21), and which frequently occurs in the Bible with this
meaning, is also sometimes used in a narrower sense, as, for instance, III K.,
iv, 23, where it stands for all fatted birds that may be reckoned among the
delicacies of a king's table; so likewise Gen., xv, 11 and Is., xviii, 6, where
it means birds of prey in general. In this latter signification allusions are
made to their habit of perching on bare or dead trees, or of flocking together
in great numbers.
Fox. — Thus
is usually rendered the Hebrew, shû'ãl, which signifies both fox and jackal,
even the latter more often than the former. The fox, however, was well known by
the ancient Hebrews, and its cunning was as proverbial among them as among us
(Ezekiel 13:4; Luke 13:32).
Frog. —
Though not rare in Israel, this word is only mentioned in the Old Testament in
connection with the second plague of Egypt. Two species of frogs are known to
live in the Holy Land: the rana esculenta, or common edible frog, and the hyla
arborea, or green tree-frog. The former throngs wherever there is water. In
Apoc., xvi, 13, the frog is the emblem of unclean spirits.
G
Gazelle
(Hebr., çebî, i. e. beauty) has been known at all times as one of the most
graceful of all animals. Several species still exist in Israel. Its different
characteristics, its beauty of form, its swiftness, its timidity, the splendour
and meekness of its eye, are in the present time, as well as during the age of
the Old Testament writers, the subjects of many comparisons. However, the name
of the gazelle is scarcely, if at all, to be found in the Bible; in its stead
we read roe, hart, or deer. Like a few other names of graceful and timid
animals, the word gazelle has always been in the East a term of endearment in
love. It was also a woman's favourite name (1 Chronicles 8:9; 2 Kings 12:1; 2
Chronicles 24:1; Acts 9:36).
Gecko. —
Probable translation of the 'anãqah of the Hebrews, generally rendered in our
versions by shrew-mouse, for which it seems it should be substituted. The
gecko, ptyodactylus gecko of the naturalists, is common in Israel.
Gier-Eagle.
— So does A.V. render the Hebrew, rãhãm (Leviticus 11:18) or rãhãmah
(Deuteronomy 14:17). By the gier-eagle, the Egyptian vulture (neophron
percnopterus), or Pharao's hen, is generally believed to be signified. However,
whether this bird should be really recognized in the Hebrew, rãhãm, is not easy
to decide; for while, on the one hand, the resemblance of the Arabic name for
the Egyptian vulture with the Hebrew word rãhãm seems fairly to support the
identification, the mention of the rãhãm in a list of wading birds, on the
other hand, casts a serious doubt on its correctness.
Giraffe. —
See CAMELOPARDALUS (sup.).
Gnat. — The
same insect called sciniph in Ex., viii, 16, 17 and Ps. civ (Hebr., cv), 31,
and known under the familiar name of mosquito, Culex pipiens, is taken in the
New Testament as an example of a trifle.
Goat. —
Though the sacred writers spoke of the ewe more frequently than of the goat,
yet with the latter they were very well acquainted. It was indeed, especially
in the hilly regions east of the Jordan, an important item in the wealth of the
Israelites. The goat of Israel, particularly the capra membrica, affords
numerous illustrations and allusions, Its remarkably long ears are referred to
by Amos, iii, 12; its glossy dark hair furnishes a graphic comparison to the
author of Cant., iv, 1; vi, 4; this hair was woven into a strong cloth; the
skin tanned with the hair on served to make bottles for milk, wine, oil, water,
etc. The kid was an almost essential part of a feast. The goat is mentioned in
Dan., viii, 5, as the symbol of the Macedonian empire. The grand Gospel scene
of the separation of the just and the wicked on the last day is borrowed from
the customs of the shepherds in the East.
Goat, Wild,
Job, xxxix, 1; I K., xxiv, 3, where it is an equivalent for yã' él, translated,
Ps., ciii (Hebr., Civ), 18, by hart, Prov., v, 19, by fawn, is most probably
the ibex syriacus, a denizen of the rocky summits [Ps. ciii (Hebr., civ), 18].
It was regarded as a model of grace (Proverbs 5:19), and its name, Jahel,
Jahala, was frequently given to persons (Judges 5:6; Ezra 2:56, etc.).
Grasshopper,
is probably the best rendering for the Hebrew, hãgãb [Lev., xi, 22; Num., xiii,
34 (Hebrews 13:33); Is., xl, 22; Eccles., xii, 5, etc.], as in the A.V., if the
Hebrew word be interpreted "hopper" as Credner suggests; the D.V.
uses the word locust. The grasshopper is one of the smaller species of the
locust tribe.
Griffon. —
So D.V., Lev., xi, 13 (whereas Deuteronomy 14:12, we read "grype")
translates the Hebrew, pérés, the "breaker" whereby the lammergeyer
or bearded vulture, gypœtus barbatus, the largest and most magnificent of the
birds of prey is probably intended. The opinion that the Bible here speaks of
the fabulous griffon, i.e. a monster begotten from a lion and an eagle, and
characterized by the beak, neck, and wings of an eagle and the legs and rump of
a lion, is based only on a misinterpretation of the word.
Griffon
Vulture, a probable translation in several cases of the Hebrew, néshér,
regularly rendered by eagle. This most majestic bird (gyps fulvus), the type,
as it seems, of the eagle-headed figures of Assyrian sculpture, is most likely
referred to in Mich., i, 16, on account of its bare neck and head.
Grype,
Deut., xiv, 12. See GRIFFON (sup.).
H
Haje. — See
Asp (sup.)
Hare. —
Mentioned Lev., xi, 6; Deut., xiv, 7, in the list of the unclean quadrupeds.
Several subspecies of the European Hare and the Cape Hare live in Israel: Lepus
europaeus syriacus in the north; Lepus europaeus judeae in the south and the
Jordan valley, together with Lepus capensis sinaiticus, Lepus capensis
aegyptius and Lepus capensis isabellinus, The statement of the Bible that the
hare "cheweth the cud" is a classical difficulty. It should be
noticed that this is not the reason why the hare is reckoned among the unclean
animals; but the cause thereof should be sought for in the fact that though it
chews the cud, which certainly it appears to do, it does not divide the hoof.
Hart and
Hind.[disambiguation needed] — Either the fallow-deer, still occasionally found
in the Holy Land, or the red deer, now extinct, or the deer generally. It has afforded
many illustrations to time Biblical writers and poets, especially by its
fleetness (Song of Songs 2:9; Isaiah 35:6), its surefootedness [Ps. xvii
(Hebr., xviii), 34; Hab., iii, 19], its affection (Proverbs 5:19), and its
habit of hiding its young (Job 39:1).
Hawk (Hebr.,
neç) is, in the Scriptures, a general denomination including, with the falcon,
all the smaller birds of prey, the kestrel, merlin, sparrowhawk , hobby, and
others, most common in Israel.
Night Hawk,
A.V. for Hebrew, táhmãs, more exactly translated in D.V. by owl; some bird of
the latter kind is indeed undoubtedly intended, probably the barn owl (strix
flammea).
Sparrow Hawk
(falco nisus), one of the hawks of Israel, so common that it might be regarded,
in reference to the Bible, as the hawk par excellence.
Hedgehog. —
See Ericius (sup.).
Hen, See
COCK (sup.).
Heron. —
Mentioned Lev., xi, 19, in the list of unclean birds, but probably in the wrong
place in the D.V.; heron, indeed, should be substituted for charadrion, whereas
in the same verse it stands for stork, as the A.V. correctly states it.
Hind. — See
HART. (sup.).
Hippopotamus.
— See BEHEMOTH (sup.).
Hobby (falco
subbuteo). See HAWK (sup.).
Hoopoe. —
See HOUP (inf.).
Hornet
(Hebr., çíre'ah; vespa crabro). — One of the largest and most pugnacious wasps;
when disturbed they attack cattle and horses; their sting is very severe,
capable not only of driving men and cattle to madness, but even of killing them
(Exodus 23:28; Deuteronomy 7:20; Joshua 24:12).
Horse. — The
horse is never mentioned in Scripture in connection with the patriarchs; the
first time the Bible speaks of it, it is in reference to the Egyptian army
pursuing the Hebrews, During the epoch of the conquest and of Judges, we hear
of horses only with the Chanaanean troops, and later on with the Philistines,
The hilly country inhabited by the Israelites was not favourable to the use of
the horse; this is the reason why the Bible speaks of horses only in connection
with war. David and Solomon established a cavalry and chariot force; but even
this, used exclusively for wars of conquest, seems to have been looked upon as
a dangerous temptation to kings, for the Deuteronomy legislation forbids them
to multiply horses for themselves. The grand description of the war horse in Job
is classical; it will be noticed, however, that its praises are more for the
strength than for the swiftness of the horse. The prophet Zacharias depicts
(ix, 10) the Messianic age as one in which no hostilities will be heard of;
then all warlike apparel being done away with, the horse will serve only for
peaceful use.
Houp
(Leviticus 11:19; Deuteronomy 14:18). — The analogy of the Hebrew with the
Syriac and Coptic for the name of this bird makes the identification doubtless,
although some, after the example of the A.V., see in the Hebrew dûkhîpháth, the
lapwing. The Egyptians worshipped the houp and made it the emblem of Horus.
Striped
hyena. — This word is not to be found in any of the English translations of the
Bible; it occurs twice in the Septuagint, Jer., xii, 9, and Ecclus., xiii, 22,
being in both places the rendering for the Hebrew name çãbhûá. The hyenas are
very numerous in the Holy Land, where they are most active scavengers; they
feed upon dead bodies, and sometimes dig the tombs open to get at the corpses
therein buried. Two Hebrew names are supposed to designate the hyena:
(1) çãbhûá'.
This word, which has been interpreted "speckled bird", Jer., xii, 9,
by modern translators following the Vulgate, has been rendered by "holy
man", Ecclus., xiii, 22. Despite the authorities that favour the above
mentioned translation of Jer., xii, 9, the consistency of the Septuagint on the
one hand, and on the other the parallelism in the latter passage, in addition
to the analogy with the Arabic and rabbinical Hebrew names for the hyena,
fairly support the identification of the çãbhûá' with this animal.
(2) çíyyím,
rendered in divers manners in different places: wild beasts, Is., xiii, 21;
demons, Is., xxxiv, 14; dragons, Ps. lxxiii (hebr., lxxiv), 14; Jer., 1, 39.
I
Ibex. — See
GOAT, WILD (sup.).
Ibis. — The
word occurs twice in the D.V. (Leviticus 11:17; Isaiah 34:11) as an equivalent
for yánshûph; some good authorities, however, though the yánshûph is mentioned
among wading birds, do not admit the above identification and think that the
Egyptian eagle-owl (bubo ascalaphus), which they term great owl, is spoken of.
The ibis was worshipped by the Egyptians as the emblem of Thot.
Ichneumon. —
See WEASEL (inf.).
Irchin. —
D.V. Ps. ciii, 18. See CHEROGRILLUS (sup.).
J
Jackal. —
Frequently alluded to in Bible, though the name is read neither in the D.V. nor
in any of the western translations, probably because the animal, however common
in Africa and south-western Asia is unknown in European countries. The name
regularly substituted for jackal is fox. The jackal seems to be designated in
Hebrew by three different names: shû'ãl, "the digger"; 'íyyîm,
"the howlers"; and tãn, "the stretcher", although we are
unable to state the differences marked by these three names, numerous
references may be found throughout the Bible to the jackal's howlings and
gregarious habits. The most likely species mentioned is the Golden Jackal,
which is the only jackal to live in the Middle East.
Jerboa. —
This little animal, at least four species of which abide in Syria, is nowhere
nominally mentioned in the Bible; it must, nevertheless, very probably be
reckoned among the unclean animals indicated under the general name of mouse.
K
Kestrel. — A
slender hawk, most likely one of the species intended by Lev., xi, 16, for it
is very common in Israel. The remark of Job, xxxix, 26, strikingly points out
the tinnulus cenchris, one of the Israeli kestrels.
Kid. — See
GOAT. (sup.).
Kine. — See
CATTLE (sup.).
Kite. — As
suggested by the analogy with the Arabic, the black kite (milvus nigrans) is
probably meant by Hebr. dã'ah or dáyyah (Leviticus 11:14; Deuteronomy 14:13;
Isaiah 34:15), interpreted kite in the D.V.; it is one of the most common of
the scavenger birds of prey of the country, and for this reason, is carefully
protected by the villagers. Other kinds of kites, in particular the milvus
regalis, are common in Israel.
L
Lamb. — The
Paschal Lamb[disambiguation needed] was both a commemoration of the deliverance
from the bondage in Egypt, and a prophetic figure of the Son of God sacrificed
to free His people from their slavery to sin and death. See EWE. (sup.).
Lamia
(Isaiah 34:14). — Is a translation of Hebrew, lîlîth; according to the old
popular legends, the lamia was a feminine bloodthirsty monster, devouring men
and children. In the above cited place, some kind of owl, either the screech or
the hooting owl, is very probably meant.
Lammergeyer
(gypœtus barbatus) very likely signified by the Hebrew, pérés, translated by
griffon in D.V.
Larus. —
Lev., xi; 16; Deut., xiv, 15. See CUCKOO (sup.).
Horse-Leech
(Proverbs 30:15). — Both the medicinal leech and the horse-leech are frequently
found in the streams, pools, and wells; they often attach themselves to the
inside of the lips and nostrils of drinking animals, thereby causing them much
pain.
Leopard. —
Under this name come a certain number of carnivorous animals more or less
resembling the real leopard (felis leopardus), namely felis jubata, felis lynx,
felis uncia, etc., all formerly numerous throughout Israel, and even now
occasionally found, especially in the woody districts. The leopard is taken by
the Biblical writers as a type of cunning (Jeremiah 5:6; Hosea 13:7), of
fierceness, of a conqueror's sudden swoop (Dan., vii, 6; Hab., i, 8). Its habit
of lying in wait by a well or a village is repeatedly alluded to.
Leviathan. —
The word Leviathan (Hebrew, líweyãthãn), which occurs six times in the Hebrew
Bible, seems to have puzzled not a little all ancient translators. The D.V. has
kept this name, Job, iii, 8; xl, 20; Is., xxvii, 1; it is rendered by dragon
Ps. lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv), 14, and ciii (Hebr., civ), 26; The word leviathan
means:
(1)
crocodile (Job 40:20 and Psalm 73:14);
(2) a
sea-monster (Psalm 103:26, Isaiah 27:1);
(3) possibly
the Draco constellation (Job 3:8).
(4) a
Dinosaur, possibly the Kronosaurus.
Lion. — Now
extinct in Israel and in the surrounding countries, the lion was common there
during the Old Testament times; hence the great number of words in the Hebrew
language to signify it; under one or another of these names it is mentioned 130
times in the Scriptures, as the classical symbol of strength, power, courage,
dignity, ferocity. Very likely as the type of power, it became the ensign of
the tribe of Juda; so was it employed by Solomon in the decoration of the
temple and of the king's house. For the same reason, Apoc., v, 5, represents
Jesus Christ as the lion of the tribe of Juda. The craft and ferocity of the
lion, on the other hand, caused it to be taken as an emblem of Satan (1 Peter
5:8) and of the enemies of the truth (2 Timothy 4:17).
Lizard. —
Immense is the number of these reptiles in Israel; no less than 44 species are
found there, Among those mentioned in the Bible we may cite:
(1) The
Letã'ah, general name of the lizard, applied especially to the common lizard,
the green lizard, the blind worm, etc.;
(2) the
chõmét, or sand lizard;
(3) the çãb,
or dább of the Arabs (uromastix spinipes);
(4) the
kõâh, the divers kinds of monitor (psammosaurus scincus, hydrosaurus niloticus,
etc.);
(5) the
'anãqah or gecko;
(6) the
semãmîth or stellio.
Locust. —
One of the worst scourges of the East, very often referred to in Bible. As many
as nine Hebrew words signify either the locust in general or some species:
(1) 'árbéh,
probably the locusta migratoria;
(2) gãzãm,
possibly the locust in its larva state, the palmerworm;
(3) Gôbh,
the locust in general;
(4) chagab,
most likely the grasshopper;
(5) hãsîl,
"the destroyer", perhaps the locust in its hopper state, in which it
is most destructive;
(6) hárgõl,
translated in the D.V. ophiomachus;
(7) yéléq,
the stinging locust;
(8) çelãçâl
possibly the cricket; and
(9) sôl'ãm,
rendered by attacus, or bald locust (probably the truxalis).
Unlike other
insects, locusts are most voracious in every stage of their existence.
Louse. —
According to some this species of vermin was one of the features of the third
Egyptian plague. It is but too common through all eastern countries.
M
Mildew. — A
word occurring a certain number of times in the D.V. as an equivalent for
Hebrew, hãsîl, which probably means a kind of locust.
Mole. — Two
Hebrew words are thus rendered, The first, tînshéméth (Leviticus 11:30), would,
according to good authorities, rather signify the chameleon; with the second,
haphárperôth (Isaiah 2:20), some burrowing animal is undoubtedly intended, The
mole of Syria is not the common mole of Europe, Talpa europaea, but a Blind
mole rat (Spalax typhlus), a blind burrowing rodent.
Mosquito. —
See GNAT. (sup.).
Moth. — Is
in the D.V. besides Is., xiv, 11, where it stands for rímmah,
"worms", the common rendering for two words: 'ãsh (Job 4:19), and sãs
(Isaiah 51:8), the exact meaning of the former is uncertain, whereas by the
latter the clothes moth is meant.
Mouflon. —
See CHAMOIS, CAMELOPARDALUS (sup.).
Mouse. —
This word seems to be a general one, including the various rats, dormice,
jerboas, and hamsters, about twenty-five species of which exist in the country.
Mule. — In
spite of the enactment of the Law (Leviticus 19:19), the Israelites early in
the course of their history possessed mules; these animals, in a hilly region
such as the Holy Land, were for many purposes preferable to horses and stronger
than asses; they were employed both for domestic and warlike use.
N
Night-hawk.
- See HAWK. (sup.).
[edit]
O
Ophiomachus.
— See LOCUST. (sup.).
Oryx. — See
ANTELOPE (sup.).
Osprey
(Hebr., 'óznîyyah). — The fishing eagle, which name probably signifies all the
smaller eagles.
Ossifrage. —
See LAMMERGEYER (sup.).
Ostrich. —
Still occasionally found in the southeastern deserts of Israel, the ostrich, if
we are to judge from the many mentions made of it, was well known among the
Hebrews. The beauty of its plumage, its fleetness, its reputed stupidity, its
leaving its eggs on the sand and hatching them by the sun's heat are repeatedly
alluded to.
Owl. — A
generic name under which many species of nocturnal birds are designated, some
having a proper name in the Hebrew, some others possessing none. Among the
former we may mention the little owl (athene persica), the Egyptian eagle-owl
(bubo ascalephus), the great owl of some authors, called ibis in the D.V., the
screech or hooting owl, probably the lîlîth of Is., xxxiv, and the lamia of St.
Jerome and the D.V.; the barn owl (stryx flammea), possibly corresponding to
the táhmãs of the Hebrews and rendered by night-hawk in the A.V.; and the
qîppôz of Is., xxxiv, 15, as yet unidentified.
Ox. — See
CATTLE (sup.).
Ox, Wild,
Is., hi, 20, probably antilope bubalis. See ANTELOPE (sup.).
P
Palmerworm
(Hebr., gãzãm) A general word for the locust, very likely in its larva state.
Partridge. —
Although very common in the Holy Land, the partridge is mentioned only three
times in the Bible: I K., xxvi, 20 alludes to chasing it on the mountains;
Jer., xvii, 11, to the robbing of its eggs; Ecclus., xi, 32, to the keeping a
decoy partridge. Two kinds of partridges are known to abide in the hilly
resorts of Israel; the francolin inhabits the plains, and various sandgrouse
are found in the deserts.
Peacock. —
The texts where it is spoken of (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chronicles 9:21) clearly
indicate that it was not indigenous to Israel, but imported, probably from
India.
Pelican,
D.V., Ps., ci (Hebr., cii), 7, for Hebr. qã'áth, in other places is rendered by
bittern, for which it might be advantageously substituted. Pelicans are usually
found about marshes (Isaiah 34:11), and are in the habit of sitting for hours
in sandy desolate places [Ps., ci (Hebr., cii), 7; Soph., ii, 14] after they
have gorged.
Phœnix might
possibly be read instead of palmtree (Hebr. hôl) in Job, xxix, 18, where the
belief in its immortality seems referred to; however the sense adopted by D.V.,
after Vulgate and Septuagint, should not be slighted.
Pigeon. —
See DOVE (sup.).
Plunger. —
See CORMORANT (sup.).
Porcupine. —
Believed by some, on account of a certain analogy of the Hebrew qîppõd with the
Arabic name of this animal, to he spoken of in the Bible. See ERICIUS (sup.).
Porphyrion
is in Vulgate and D.V. (Leviticus 11:18), the equivalent for the Hebrew, rãhãm,
translated in the Septuagint by "swan"; in the Greek version,
porphyrion stands for the Hebrew, tínshéméth, interpreted "swan" by
the Latin and English Bibles. The hypothesis that the Greek translators used a
Hebrew text in which the two words rãhãm and tínshéméth stood contrariwise to
their present order in the Massoretic text, might account for this difference.
This hypothesis is all the more probable because in Deut., xiv, 17, porphyrion
seems to be the Greek translation for rãhãm. Whatever this may be, whether the
porphyrion, or purple water-hen (porphyrio antiquorum), or the Egyptian
vulture, should be identified with the rãhãm remains uncertain. See GIER-EAGLE
(sup.).
Pygarg
(Deuteronomy 14:5). — This word, a mere adaptation from the Greek, means
"white-rumped", a character common to many species, though the
antilope addax is possibly signified by the Hebrew word dîshõn.
Q
Quail. — The
description given Ex., xvi, 11-13; Num., xi, 31, 32; Ps., lxxvii (Hebr.,
lxxviii) 27-35, and civ (Hebr., cv), 40, the references to their countless
flocks, their low flying, their habit of alighting on land in the morning,
together with the analogy of the Hebrew and Arabic names, make it certain that
the common quail (coturnix vulgaris) is intended.
R
Rabbit
(Proverbs 30:26). — A mistranslation for coney or daman. See CHEROGRILLUS,
(sup.).
Ram. — See
EWE, FLOCK (sup.).
Rat. - There
is no mention of rats in the Bible.
Raven. — The
Bible includes under this generic name a certain number of birds having more or
less resemblance with the raven, such as the magpie, the jay, etc. The raven,
eight species of which are found in Israel, is by far the most common of all
the birds of that country, where it is with buzzards, vultures, dogs, jackals,
and hyenas, an active scavenger. Its plumage is glossy black, and its habits
are frequently alluded to in Bible, for instance feeding on carcasses,
wandering for its precarious meals, picking out the eyes of the newly dropped
or weakly animals, resorting to desolate places, etc. The raven, when no other
food is nigh, not unfrequently picks out grains freshly sown; hence its surname
of seed-picker, spermologos, which, later on became a synonym for ragamuffin.
This name, applied to St. Paul by his sceptical listeners of Athens, has
become, through a mistranslation, "word-sower" in our Bibles (Acts
17:18).
Night Raven,
the equivalent in Ps. ci (Hebr., cii), 7, of the Hebrew word translated Lev.,
xi, 17, by screech owl, seems to mean the blue thrush (petrocynela cyanea), a
well-known solitary bird of the country, which is fond of sitting alone on a
roof or a rock.
Rhinoceros,
Num., xxiii, 22, stands for Hebrew, re'em, and should consequently be rendered
by aurochs.
Ringtail.[disambiguation
needed] — So D.V., Deut., xiv, 13, translates rã'ah, possibly substituted by a
scribe's error for dã'ah, and very likely meaning the black kite (milvus
migrans).
S
Satyr. — So
is the Hebrew sã'îr rendered Is., xiii, 21, and xxxiv, 14, by R.V. (D.V.:
"hairy one"). The same word in Lev., xvii, 7, and II Par., xi, 15, is
translated "devils" in all English Bibles. Sã'îr usually signifies
the he-goat. In the latter passages this sense is clearly inapplicable; it
seems hardly applicable in the former. The writers of Leviticus, and II
Paralipomenon possibly intended some representation of the same description as
the goat-headed figures of the Egyptian Pantheon. Concerning the sã'îr
mentioned in Isaias, no satisfactory explanation has as yet been given.
Scarlet.[disambiguation
needed] — See COCHINEAL (sup.).
Sciniph. —
See GNAT (sup.).
Scorpion. —
Very common in all hot, dry, stony places; is taken as an emblem of the wicked.
Sea gull. —
Its different kinds are probably signified by the word translated larus. See
CUCKOO (sup.).
seal. — See
BADGER (sup.).
Sea Monster,
Lam., iv, 3, probably means such animals as the whale, porpoise, dugong, etc.
Serpent. — A
generic term whereby all ophidia are designated; ten names of different species
of snakes are given in the Bible.
Shrew. — So
does D.V. translate the Hebr. 'anãqah, which however means rather some kind of
lizard, probably the gecko.
Siren, Is.,
xiii, 22, a translation for Hebrew tán, which, indicates an animal dwelling in
ruins, and may generally be rendered by jackal. No other resemblance than a
verbal one should be sought between this tán and the fabulous being, famous by
its allurements, called Siren by the ancient poets.
Snail should
be read instead of wax, Ps., lvii (Hebr., lviii) 9, to translate the Hebrew,
shábelûl. Unlike the snails of northern climates which hibernate, those of
Israel sleep in summer. The Psalmist alludes "to the fact that very
commonly, when they have secured themselves in some chink of the rocks for
their summer sleep, they are still exposed to the sun rays, which gradually
evaporate and dry up the whole of the body, till the animal is shrivelled to a
thread, and, as it were, melted away" (Tristram).
Sparrow. —
The Hebrew word çíppôr, found over 40 times, is a general name for all small
passerine birds, of which there exist about 150 species in the Holy Land.
Spider. — An
arachnid living by millions in Israel, where several hundred species have been
distinguished. Its web affords a most popular illustration for frail and
ephemeral undertakings (Job 8:14; Isaiah 59:5); in three passages, however, the
translators seem to have wrongly written spider for moth [Ps. xxxviii (Hebr.,
xxxix), 12], sigh [Ps. lxxxix (xc), 9], and pieces (Hosea 8:6).
Stork. — The
Hebrew word hasîdhah, erroneously rendered "heron" by the Douay
translators, Lev., xi, 19, alludes to the well-known affection of the stork for
its young. Several passages have reference to this bird, its periodical
migrations (Jeremiah 8:7), its nesting in fir-trees, its black pinions
stretching from its white body (Zechariah 5:9; D.V., kite; but the stork,
hasîdhah, is mentioned in the Hebrew text). Two kinds, the white and the black
stork, live in Israel during the winter.
Swallow. —
Two words are so rendered: derôr, "the swift flyer", which means the
chimney swallow and other species akin to it [Ps. lxxxiii (Hebr., lxxxiv), 4;
D.V., turtle; Prov., xxvi, 2; D.V., sparrow], whereas sûs or sîs may be
translated by "swift", this bird being probably intended in Is.,
xxxviii, 14, and Jer., viii, 7.
Swan. —
Mentioned only in the list of unclean birds (Leviticus 11:18; Deuteronomy
14:16). The swan having always been very rare in Syria, there was little need
of forbidding to eat its flesh; by the Hebrew tínshéméth, some other bird might
possibly be designated.
Swine. — The
most abhorred of all animals among the Jews; hence the swineherd's was the most
degrading employment (Luke 15:15; cf. Matthew 8:32). Swine are very seldom kept
in Israel.
T
Tiger, Job,
iv, 11 (Hebr., láyísh), should be "lion".
Turtle. —
See DOVE (sup.).
U
Unicorn. —
See AUROCHS (sup.).
Urchin,[disambiguation
needed] Soph., ii, 14. See ERICIUS (sup.).
V
Viper. — See
ASP (sup.).
Vulture. —
So does D.V. render the Hebrew, 'áyyah, Lev., xi, 14; Deut., xiv, 13; Job,
xxviii, 7. As has been suggested above, the text of Job at least, seems to
allude to the kite rather than to the vulture. Several kinds of vultures are
nevertheless referred to in the Bible; so, for instance, the bearded
vulture(gypœtus barbatus), called griffon in the D.V.; the griffon vulture
(gyps fulvus), the Egyptian vulture (neophron percnopterus), etc. In the
biblical parlance vultures are often termed eagles.
W
Waternhen. —
See PORPHYRION (sup.).
Weasel,
Lev., xi, 29, must be regarded as a general name, probably designating, besides
the weasel proper, the polecat[disambiguation needed] and ichneumon, all very
common in the Holy Land.
Whale
(Genesis 1:21). — Tânnîm would perhaps be better translated generally
"sea-monster"; porpoises and dugongs were certainly known to the
Hebrews.
Wild dogs,
Ezekiel 13:4
Wolf. —
Frequently mentioned in the Scriptures as a special foe to flocks (Sirach
13:21; Matthew 7:15), and an emblem of treachery, ferocity, and
bloodthirstiness. Wolves usually prowl at night around the sheepfolds, and,
though fewer in numbers than jackals, are much more harmful. The tribe of
Benjamin, owing to its warlike character, was compared to a wolf.
Worm. — In
English the translation for two Hebrew words: rímmah [Exod., xvi, 24; Is., xiv,
11; (Job 7:5, A.V.)]; and tólá' (Exodus 16:20, etc.); these two Hebrew words
are general; the former designates particularly all living organisms generated
and swarming in decaying or rotten substances; the latter includes not only
worms, but also such insects as caterpillars, centipedes, etc.